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In this
number 2006
Tiivistelmät
/ Abstrakter / Abstracts 2006
6/2006
PAAVO KETTUNEN
Birth of the Faculty of Theology in Joensuu – A Hundred-Year Process
The
article discusses the complex genesis of the Faculty of Theology in
Joensuu, which was launched in 2002 after a process lasting nearly 100
years. The aim of creating a new Finnish-language faculty of theology
in Finland goes back to 1908, when the first such proposal was mooted.
Locations proposed for the faculty have included Turku, Oulu,
Jyväskylä, Kuopio and Joensuu. This process was motivated both by the
need to expand theological training and by the dissatisfaction with the
existing theological training. The Faculty of Theology in Joensuu is
the only such faculty in Finland to have both a Western and an Orthodox
degree programme.
HANNELE REPO
Challenges in Religious Instruction in Finland and Estonia in the Early 2000s
Religious
instruction in schools has a long tradition in both Finland and
Estonia. Despite this, it is frequently the subject of heated public
debate. In Finland, pupils are obliged either to participate in
religious instruction proper to their faith or to take ethics instead.
Confirmation school is an integral part of youth culture. In Estonia,
religious instruction is again allowed in schools after a pause of 50
years. It is a voluntary subject and is only taught in some schools.
Confirmation school is mostly intended for adults. The challenges of
reviving a tradition of religious instruction and Christian traditions
in a post-atheist society bring a fresh dimension to the education
debate in the increasingly secular and multi-cultural Finnish society.
TIMO VANHOJA
Notebooks as Conveyors of the Gospel in the First and Second Centuries
The
article explores the establishment and distribution of the Gospel
tradition in the first and second centuries. The copying tradition
relying on notebooks, a well-established principle in the world of
Antiquity, seems to have played a major role in the preservation and
distribution of the Gospel. The use of notebooks would explain the kind
of interaction that appears in the Gospel tradition and seems curious
from the canonic point of view. The free combining of fragments
apparently from the traditional lineages of the four Gospels was a
practice that emerged in the 1st century, not a novelty thought up by
the Church Fathers in the second century. The Church Fathers used
collections of the words and deeds of Jesus partly as sources
independent of writings containing entire Gospels. Thus, even as late
as midway through the 2nd century, the concept of a ”Gospel” in the
sense of a literary account by a single author of the entire life of
Jesus had not yet gained primacy.
PÄIVI VÄHÄKANGAS
Heresiography as a Means of Drawing Boundaries between Early Christianity and Pagan Philosophy
In
this article I present a refutation of philosophy using three
second-century Christian examples: Coptic Eugnostos and Sophia of Jesus
Christ, Justin Martyr and Pseudo-Clementine Recognitiones. They all
have a similar manner of speaking about philosophical schools and
similar polemical arguments against philosophy, which is customary in
non-Christian philosophical treatises too. The final part of the
article deals with the rhetorical training of the ancient Greek
education as an interpretative key to these similarities.
TOMI KARTTUNEN
Bonhoeffer Interpreting Luther
One
interesting theme connected to the centenary of Dietrich Bonhoeffer
(1906–45) is the relationship of his theology to the thinking of
Luther. An important background factor here is the Luther renaissance
interpretation of the communal nature of Luther’s ecclesiology.
Bonhoeffer criticized Kant and German idealism for abstract theoretism
of knowledge, whereas the personal community of the Church represented
for him a genuine social dimension. Thus, the Church in the sense of
”Christ existing as a congregation” merges dogmatics and ethics.
Bon-hoeffer was aware of the problems of modern dualism and emphasized
the unity of reality. Therefore, he also saw Luther’s doctrine of the
two kingdoms as demonstrating the ”polemic unity” between the secular
dimension and the spiritual dimension, where the tension is never
resolved in favour of either side.
RISTO JUKKO
Aspects of French Roman Catholic Theology in the 20th Century
There
was a clear dichotomy in French Roman Catholic theology in the 20th
century: before the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), it was in the
vanguard of Roman Catholic theology thanks to the ”new theology”,
whereas after the Council its importance and visibility diminished
considerably. The principal reasons for this were the French
legislation separating church and state (1905) and its implications for
academic theology, the challenges posed by the arts in the late 20th
century, and a strong trend towards pastoral care and practical
theology. Since the Second Vatican Council, French Roman Catholic
theology has focused on hermeneutics and fundamental theology.
PETRI LUOMANEN & RAIMO HAKOLA
The Bible and the Church in the Post- Modern Era: Viewpoints of Biblical Criticism
Jyri
Komulainen suggested in his article in Teologinen Aikakauskirja 4/2006
that canonical criticism and narrative theology might provide ”new”
useful tools for the church to interpret the Bible and define its own
post-modern identity. The present article demonstrates problems
inherent in these approaches, pointing out that Biblical scholars began
to apply new methods as early as in the 1970s and 1980s. It is also
argued that critical exegetical methods – broadly understood – may help
the church to promote hospitality, tolerance and dialogue, all of which
are essential in a post-modern situation.
5/2006
JUHA AHVIO
Epistemology of Reformed Apologetics
This
article discusses the major apologetical schools of thought which have
important contemporary relevance in traditional and confessional
American Reformed theo-logy and philosophical theology. The schools are
the classical evidentialism of R. C. Sproul and J. H. Gerstner, the
dogmatic presuppositionalism of G. H. Clark, and the transcendental
presuppositionalism of C. Van Til. At the core of this discussion are
the various decisions that these positions on the defence of the faith
have taken regarding epistemology.
KIM ÖSTMAN
Contemporary Christian Esotericism: An Overview of Mormonism’s Temple Tradition
History
knows many forms of both Christian and non-Christian esotericism. One
of the less understood forms of modern Christian higher teaching is the
temple tradition of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(LDS Church, Mormon Church). Conceived and begun by Joseph Smith in the
mid-1800s, this activity has spread from the United States to many
areas of the world as the LDS Church builds its temples at an
unprecedented pace. This article discusses the meaning of these temples
to Mormonism, the underlying theology and the ordinances of the temple,
and the general relationship Finnish Mormons have to this esoteric
tradition.
TIMO NISULA
Augustine: The Hermeneutics of Lust
Since
Karla Pollmann’s groundbreaking study (1996) on Augustine’s influential
De doctrina christiana, the connection between love (caritas), ethics
and biblical interpretation has become more evident than ever. This
article discusses the crucial problems of circularity and universality
of love in Augustine’s hermeneutics. Augustine depicts a parallel, or
parasitic, method of biblical interpretation that is pursued in a
context of socially and conventionally determined knowledge, and
motivated by the opposite of love, namely lust (cupiditas).
HEIKKI PESONEN & VALDEMAR KALLUNKI & ANNE BIRGITTA YEUNG
The Church as Mediator? Municipal Cooperation in Diaconia Work as an Indicator of the Status of the Church
The
article discusses how the shared history of parishes and municipalities
and their status in relation to the state on the one hand and the civic
society on the other can be identified in the cooperation between them.
Material for the article was collected through interviews and
questionnaires in Lahti and in the Diocese of Mikkeli. The material
sheds light on practical cooperation, the benefits and challenges of
cooperation, and how the fundamental spiritual mission of the Church
influences this cooperation. Following the presentation of the
findings, there is a discussion and outline of future prospects for the
cooperation and its theoretical background. The central issue is the
role of the parish between the central government, local government and
the civic society. The discussion also addresses what kinds of
differences and similarities, if any, the two case studies bring up –
focusing on a medium-size city and a rural diocese.
JUHA MATIAS LEHTONEN
God, Power and Legitimacy: Theocracy as a Concept in the Study of Religion and in Social Sciences
The
concept of theocracy as used in the study of religion and in social
sciences is problematic for two reasons. Firstly, it is not usually not
defined precisely enough to be scientifically useful. Secondly, it
carries negative connotations dating from the Enlightenment era. This
article analyzes the various ways in which the concept is used and
concludes by presenting a new use based on the concepts of legitimacy
and counterintuitive agent.
OLLI-PEKKA VAINIO
The Union of Natural Sciences and Theology? Alister McGrath’s Project, A Scientific Theology
This
article briefly presents McGrath’s proposal for theological method as
formulated in the first three volumes of the series A Scientific
Theology. McGrath attempts to create a methodological union between
natural sciences and classical Christian theology. This is possible
because both of these disciplines address the same physical reality. In
the case of theology, we engage not with God as such but with his
revelation in the form of different strata in this world. The knowledge
of revelation is only partial and never perfect, and for this reason
the world, including revelatory strata, are best understood with the
help of critical realism.
4/2006
JUHA PAKKALA & KIRSI VALKAMA & TUULA TYNJÄ
The Excavations at Kinneret from 2001 to 2005
The Department of Biblical Studies at the University of Helsinki has
been involved in the excavations at Kinneret in northern Israel since
1998. This article presents the major findings from the years 2001 to
2005. The excavations focus on early Iron Age settlement in Kinneret,
everyday items and particularly pottery. The study of early Iron Age
pottery helps to date the findings and to establish the relations of
the inhabitants of Kinneret to their neighbouring areas. Kinneret was a
fairly large and well-planned regional centre in the early Iron Age,
and due to its sudden destruction a wealth of archaeological material
was left.
JYRI KOMULAINEN
The Bible and the Church in the Postmodern era
Western culture is undergoing a cultural transition between the modern
and the postmodern. This article outlines the challenges and
opportunities that the postmodern era places on Bible interpretation
and ecclesiology. In Bible interpretation, fruitful new aspects may be
found in a brand of narrative theology that takes the Bible seriously
as the book of the church and its dynamic fundamental narrative. In
ecclesiology, the article explores the most recent developments in
systematic theology, where attempts at rehabilitating classical dogma
are being made. For example, Trinitarianism and Kenosis Christology
outline a postmodern Christian community which is radically equitable
and hospitable.
KATI NIEMELÄ & HANNA SALOMÄKI
Revival Movements in the Domain of the Church in the 21st Century
The article discusses the status of revival movements in the domain of
the church in Finland in the 21st century, focusing on regional
distribution on the one hand and on commitment to these movements on
the other, on the basis of a variety of empirical materials. The study
shows that some half a million Finns identify themselves with a revival
movement, even if loosely. An equal number have been influenced by such
movements in their thinking. This is particularly common among women
pensioners. The results show that extensive regional distribution does
not correlate with commitment to a revival movement. The more specific
the geographical distribution of a movement is, the more likely it is
that a high proportion of its members will have a strong commitment to
it. The Conservative Laestadian movement is a case in point. By
contrast, movements that are widely and non-specifically distributed
around Finland are characterized by a loose ”hang-around”
membership and a low percentage of members with a strong commitment.
Neo-Pietist movements are examples of this.
JUSSI KOIVISTO
Martin Luther’s Conception of Pastoral Care and Assessment of the Debate in Finland on the Image of God
In recent decades in Finland in particular, it has become important to
establish what the relationship is between Christian pastoral care and
modern therapy models. Perhaps the most conspicuous manifestation of
this was the public debate undertaken by Matti Hyrck, Sammeli Juntunen
and Paavo Kettunen. This article analyzes that debate and also touches
on Luther’s conception of pastoral care, drawing on Luther and
Biblical theology to present viewpoints on pastoral care that have been
overlooked in present times.
OLLI HALLAMAA
Late Medieval English Theology and the Origins of Modern Science
Manuscript Chigi B.V. 66 at the Vatican library contains a selection of
theological treatises written by English Franciscan authors in the
1330s. Among these is Roger Roseth’s book Lectura super
Sententias. Roseth was well acquainted with contemporary logic and
natural philosophy and applied in his writing the theories that his
colleagues in the faculty of arts had developed. Speculative physics,
which emerged at Oxford, soon spread to continental universities, and
its ideas paved way for the scientific revolution of the 17th century.
Roseth’s work testifies to the crucial issues in philosophical
theology in an era where philosophers were beginning to mend the
shortcomings of Aristotelian natural philosophy and to initiate
research in mathematical physics.
3/2006
TIMO HELENIUS
Experiential Lutheran Theology? Means of Grace and Faith
The Lutheran Church and the Methodist Churches in Finland
have opened a theological dialogue following proceedings abroad.
However, for the local dialogue to progress, all major fields of the
Christian faith must be covered. The aim of this study is to comment
briefly on the Lutheran interpretation of the means of grace by
comparing it with the Methodist one. In Lutheranism, these means are
God’s word and sacraments. They are objective and efficient signs
of grace (signa et instrumenta).
As such, they are rooted in the reality that they mediate to the
believer: the redemptive work of Christ. In relation to the Methodist
view – which in some aspects differs substantially from the
Lutheran – the origin and the role of faith, as well as
”effective justification” and the renewing capacity of the
means of grace are of some importance when seeking a common statement
on the issue.
PETER NYNÄS
Jacob’s Struggle in the Religiosity of Dag Hammarskjöld: An Integrated Religion Psychology Perspective
This article sheds light on the religiosity of the late Dag
Hammarskjöld (1905–1961), Secretary General of the UN, from
the perspective of the psychology of religion and integrated role
theory, where the vulnerability of an inner true self is seen as a
major drive in a lifelong struggle with both oneself and God –
similar to the struggle of Jacob. Religious development is thus
considered in terms of a symbolic dialogue with an inner Thou, which as
it develops also enables a general experience of meaning. Taking this
point of view, it seems plausible that Buber’s philosophy
influenced and directed Hammarskjöld towards a more universalist
religious standpoint, as Hammarskjöld encountered in Buber’s
philosophy something of great importance not only for his political
assignment but especially for his inner life.
ANNI PESONEN & OUTI LEHTIPUU
Luke in the Finnish Catechism: On the Relationship Between the Catechism and the Bible
The Catechism of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland aims at
conveying ”the most essential message of the Bible”. Here,
we examine the theological agreements and disagreements between the
Catechism and Luke/Acts. Luke’s own doctrinal input is partly
adopted and partly bypassed in the Catechism. The doctrinal pluralism
of the Bible itself makes such decisions unavoidable. Tradition rather
than the Bible itself accounts for what is seen as the most essential
message of the Bible.
LEO NÄREAHO
Psycho-Physical Dualism: The Persona- Atomism Theory of E. J. Lowe Criticized
Currently, dualistic solutions to the metaphysical mindbody problem are
widely rejected. In this article, I first examine some traditional
problems in Cartesian dualism. Then I discuss E. J. Lowe’s
mereological version of mindbody dualism. I consider his main argument
(the Simplicity Argument) for his thesis that selves are metaphysically
simple entities that have no parts. I conclude that several premises in
Lowe’s argument are problematic. Therefore, it is unlikely that
his argument could be successful.
MARKKU NIEMINEN
The Psychodynamics of Religion
Like all activity of the human psyche, religious experience is closely
tied to the subconscious of the human mind. According to
psychoanalytical object relationship theory, the subconscious mindscape
is relational and associative. From the beginning of life, it is
dominated by the fundamental conception of an intensive emotional
relationship between two mutually dependent entities, the internal
subject and the internal object. Religious experience is also
principally about a connection, the connection between a person and
God. In a person’s internal world, the God relationship is
structurally similar to his other object relationships. A God
relationship is coloured by associations and thoughts deriving from
various mental development phases; the impact of these can be seen in
manifestations of religious thought that have concrete, schizo-paranoid
or depressive characteristics. As with everything else in the human
mind, religiousness is essential study material in the search for a
better selfawareness.
HEIKKI TOIVIO
The Freely Modified Orders of Service as Pioneers of Truly Vernacular Worship
The concept of ”freely modified orders of service” emerged
in the late 1960s. It signified a renewed worship service cultivating
new traditions of unofficial worship in Finland. These new services had
arisen as a response to alienation from the then official service.
There was also a move from the dominance of the clergy to an increasing
involvement by the laity. No committees were needed. But does this
unofficial worship have anything to do with official worship? What is
the tradition that will last?
2/2006
PER LINDBLAD
The Responsibility of Safety Management in Parishes
The new Act on Occupational Safety and Health challenges ecclesiastical
law. The basic principle of the new Act is to concentrate the
management of and responsibility for occupational safety and health as
far down in the hierarchy as possible, right down to the operational
level. By contrast, ecclesiastical law specifies that ultimate
responsibility for supervising the work of the parishes belongs to the
bishops. There is a genuine conflict between these two pieces of
legislation. If the bishops are unable to exercise their responsibility
of supervision, the spirit of the Act on Occupational Safety and Health
remains unfulfilled. At the same time, the geographically oriented idea
of a shepherd tending his flock which underlies ecclesiastical law
loses its credibility.
NIKO HUTTUNEN & JARMO KIILUNEN
Cleanthes’ Hymn to Zeus: Introduction, Translations, Explanations and Relationship with the Bible
The Finnish translation given here of the Hymn by Cleanthes (c. 310
– 232 BC) is based on a text-critically edited original. The poem
is a traditional hymn to a deity, and its language is archaic. In terms
of content, it is based on Stoic philosophy. The influence of
Heraclitus is conspicuous. What is notable is the image of divinity
that stretches the boundaries of Stoic theology and gives room for
religious experience. The Hymn represents a philosophical kind of
religion that can also be found in certain writings in the Bible. The
article discusses the Book of Jesus Sirach, the Gospel according to
John, the Epistle to the Romans and, in particular, Paul’s
Areopagus speech in the Acts. The latter may even contain a direct
reference to Cleanthes’ Hymn.
RISTO SAARINEN
Eros, Playfulness and Norms: Towards a Fundamental Theology of Love
This article discusses the theology of love from Anders Nygren to
Jean-Luc Marion, paying special attention to the idea of eros and
erotic love. Protestant theologians have been too eager to distinguish
between eros and agape, thus creating many misunderstandings regarding
eros. The playful character of eros and the difficulty of making moral
judgments on the basis of playful conduct are highlighted.
MIKA HIETANEN
Paul’s Argument in the Epistle to the Galateans
Faults in the argumentation of Paul are a perennial favourite among
exegetical topics, but proper argumentation analysis is conspicuous by
its absence. And yet such an analysis can yield a sophisticated tool
for a description and informed criticism of the idiosyncratic features
of his argumentation. The Epistle to the Galateans is an excellent
example.
ANJA GHISELLI
Bearer of the Word: Martin Luther’s Conception of the Virgin Mary
This article explores the theological-historical background of
Luther’s conception of the Virgin Mary. The rise to prominence of
Mariology in various eras – the 4th and 5th centuries, the 12th
and 13th centuries, the 15th century and most recently the late 20th
century – has always coincided with the flourishing of the
theology of spirituality. It is a Christian brand of mysticism that
emphasizes the trinity of faith, humility and love and a personal
experience of God. Luther fits into this tradition in that he places
Mary in the frame of his theology of the cross. Mary is a human
archetype, yet at the same time she is the Mother of God and the
perpetual virgin.
JOUKO TALONEN
Is Church History a Theological Discipline?
The article addresses the question of whether church history is a
theological discipline. The ascendance of general history in the 19th
century served to incorporate church history largely in general
history. The research method used is a genetic one. A scholar in church
history must, however, take theological explanations into account when
interpreting sources and explaining events. Religion is sui generis
in historical reality. Despite recent tendencies in history writing, we
should continue to maintain that church history is both theology and
history.
1/2006
ANNUKKA KALSKE
An Outline of Feminist Philosophy of Religion
Feminist philosophy of religion is a developing field, which although
mainly rising from the British analytic tradition has strong
connections to the continental tradition and American pragmatism. This
article introduces the epistemological outlines of feminist philosophy
of religion. It focuses mainly on Pamela Sue Anderson’s and Grace
M. Jantzen’s work, dealing with their different views on the
possibilities of philosophy of religion and what impact those views
would have on the future of philosophy of religion.
ANNI TSOKKINEN
Constructed, not Made: The Concept of Gender in the Feminist Thinking of Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza
Gender is one of the key concepts of feminist theory that feminist
theologian Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza explores in her work. Her
gender theory rests on a conception of gender as a socio-cultural
construct rather than a biological, ”natural” feature. She
makes her argument by drawing on various aspects of feminist theory
over the decades, most importantly the Marxist-Socialist feminist
tradition, whose concepts she uses to outline her view of gender as a
socio-political and ideological power structure. She links her gender
theory closely to an analysis of power systems, with little attention
to the issue of gender as a defining feature of the individual.
PAULIINA KAINULAINEN
Ecological Mysticism? Ivone Gebara and the Integrating Concept of Information Brazilian
Ivone Gebara represents a kind of eco-feminist theology
deriving from a concern for the earth and for the livelihood of women
in poverty. Her theology could be described as post-patriarchal
theology of wisdom. She wishes to restore the central role of theology
of wisdom which appreciates experience and poetic language, i.e.
mysticism. This requires a more holistic concept of information. Such a
notion of the nature and mission of theology represents a challenge to
western theology – even in Finland – to reassess its
basics. Alongside university theology, we need a brand of theology
whose ethical viewpoints stem from spirituality in Christian
communities.
PETRI MERENLAHTI
Lacan’s Sexual Theory as per the Gospel according to Mark
The Gospel according to Mark is governed by the tension between dreams
and relinquishment: access to the Kingdom of God requires walking the
path of the cross. This makes the Gospel a fascinating subject for
psychoanalytic literary criticism. The present article puts forth a
number of psychoanalytical points in approaching Mark. They are based
on the Freudian views of Jacques Lacan (1901–1981). Lacan
dissociated himself from Freud’s biologistic approach and
examined sexuality as a sociosymbolic construct where gender, language
and power are intertwined. This viewpoint helps us understand why the
tidings of the Kingdom of God challenged established sexual norms in
its day. For Jesus and his followers to submit to being ”slaves
to everyone” required a redefinition of their masculinity in a
way that differed from the normative masculinity of the culture around
them.
ELISA HEINÄMÄKI
A Mystic on the Border of the
Other: Angela of Foligno and Georges Bataille on the Wounds of the
Self, of the Other (and of God)
This article discusses two mystics in parallel, the 13thcentury
Franciscan penitent Angela of Foligno and the 20th-century author and
atheist mystic Georges Bataille. Starting from the notion that
mysticism is characterized by an attempt to discard the self and to
become one with something else, the article charts this process in the
writings of Angela and Bataille. Its focus is on the motif of imitatio
Christi, which is seminal for Angela and can be found in a startling
atheist variant in Bataille’s work too. The article demonstrates
that the two mystics were largely alike, though they differed in what
the relationship of the self and the suffering other ultimately is and
whether the pain inherent in this relationship can be healed.
ELINA RÄSÄNEN
Bodily Saintliness in Late Medieval Imagery: The Visual Hagiography of St Barbara in the Kalanti Altarpiece
The article studies a late medieval altarpiece depicting scenes from
the life of the Virgin surrounded by a series of panel paintings on the
life of St Barbara. The main topics are the independence and
reciprocity of images, corporeality of saintliness and diversity of
reception of the imagery of martyrdom. Drawing evidence mainly from a
detailed analysis of the altarpiece, such as pictorial means for
expressing disputation, the author suggests that the work mediated
between the ideals of the Christian faith and the terms of sanctity. In
addition, the author points out that medieval art also links to
contemporary issues such as ”honour killings” in the case
of the St Barbara cycle.
SAANA TEPPO
A Third Gender in Ancient Mesopotamia? Devotees of Ishtar
The article examines the concept of social gender as applied to the
study of Mesopotamian culture and the potential for using the concept
of the third gender as a viewpoint on Mesopotamian materials. The focus
is on the ”priests” of the cult of the goddess Ishtar: the
assinnu, the kurgarrû and the kulu’u. These cult
functionaries were born men but assumed a feminine identity when they
dedicated themselves to Ishtar. Their social status can be examined for
instance through the theories of anthropologist Mary Douglas, whereby
the assinnu, the kurgarrû and the kulu’u come across as
anomalies whose potentially dangerous and chaotic powers were harnessed
into the service of the community through rituals. Thus they became an
important part of the community, a body of mediators between the
goddess and humanity.
SALOME TUOMAALA
Dealing with God: Religiosity as an Ethical Mode in Women’s Abortion Narratives
This article examines religiosity as a possible ethical mode in
abortion narratives by Finnish women. Religious expressions reveal
layers of tradition stratified in abortion values. Women’s
narratives illustrate contrasting habits of ethical pursuit: the notion
of abortion as a ”sin” can be found along with the notion
of abortion as a ”legal right”. While women use religious
discourse to express their feelings and values, they oppose the agency
of women in abortion situations.
SARI KATAJALA-PELTOMAA
Liminal Gender Roles? Women’s Ascetic Pilgrimages as Votive Offerings
In medieval Christianity, pilgrimages were an essential part of the
interaction of laity with saints: devotees expressed their gratitude
for the desired recovery or rescue by going on a pilgrimage to the
shrine of the intercessor. Women in particular seem to have stressed
the importance of the journey by undertaking it in an ascetic manner:
with bare feet or with hands tied. Victor and Edith Turner have
interpreted pilgrimages as liminal situations; however, this liminality
can be approach from different angles. These women’s votive
offerings, ascetic pilgrimages, can be seen as a way of emphasizing
one’s spiritual status within the community by stressing a close
relationship with the intercessor; or they can be seen as marginal
situations, since one’s social position could not be manifested
in an accustomed way while stressing humility in the relationship with
the intercessor; while within the family these performances may have
simply served the purpose of strengthening the traditional nurturing
role.
SEIJA JALAGIN
“How Could the Voice of One Woman Be Heard?” Finnish Missionary Women as Norm-Breakers
Foreign missions have been hierarchical and patriarchal
both in relation to their own members and to the peoples among whom
they work. This article focuses on female missionaries as norm-breakers
in the Finnish evangelical revivalist mission to Japan in
1900–1941 to demonstrate that despite their lack of formal power
women could act as strategic deviants when the outcome promoted the
overall mission cause. The two cases I analyse imply, however, that
although gender-bound hierarchy could be contested, gender was a
contingent factor which the missionary women had to take into account
in all their actions.
Translation:
Jaakko Mäntyjärvi
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